Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Battery Electric Vehicle shopping experience:

1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Battery Electric Vehicle offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Battery Electric Vehicle at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.

2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about

3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Battery Electric Vehicle? Wrong! If the Battery Electric Vehicle is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.

4. Questions - Got a question about Battery Electric Vehicle then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....

5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Battery Electric Vehicle? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Battery Electric Vehicle and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.

6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Battery Electric Vehicle wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.

7. Feedback - happy with your Battery Electric Vehicle then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.

8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Battery Electric Vehicle site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site

9. Contact - got a question about Battery Electric Vehicle, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.

10. Payment - ready to pay for your Battery Electric Vehicle, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.

was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices. 4 door sedan neighborhood electric vehicle 2 door seen here in Malta. More REVAs have been produced than any other currently selling electric car.While in the UK it's a full blown EV, in the US it is allowed only as neighborhood electric vehicle with reduced top speed Electrique vans of the ELCIDIS goods distribution service in La Rochelle, France of a Piaggio (rebranded Isuzu) vehicle by installing electric components, Seen in Rome Italy.

The electric car, EV, or simply electric vehicle is a battery electric vehicle (BEV) that utilizes chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery battery pack. Electric vehicles use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. BEVs are usually automobiles, Truck#Light trucks, neighborhood electric vehicles, motorcycles, Motorized bicycle#Electrics, electric scooters, golf carts, milk floats, Forklift truck and similar vehicles.

BEVs were among the earliest automobiles, and are more Energy efficiency than internal combustion, fuel cell, and most other types of vehicles. BEVs produce no exhaust fumes, and minimal pollution if charged from most forms of renewable energy. Many are capable of acceleration exceeding that of conventional vehicles, are quiet, and do not produce noxious fumes. It has been suggested that, because BEVs reduce oil dependence, they enhance national security, and mitigate global warming by alleviating the greenhouse effect.

Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed many of these problems; many models have recently been prototyped, and a handful of future production models have been announced. Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate. The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately Sabotage their electric vehicle production efforts."The Death and Rebirth of the Electric Auto" Hari Heath. The Idaho Observer Vol 8, No. 26, Sept, 21, 2006. Who killed the electric car? (website)

The price of an EV is set by market factors not cost. For equivalent production volumes battery EVs should be cheaper than internal combustion engine vehicles because they have many fewer parts. This also means they are cheaper to maintain. They are less expensive to operate by a factor of ten over gasoline. Using regenerative braking, a feature which is standard on electric cars, allows hybrids to get about double the fuel efficiency of regular cars.

In general terms a battery electric vehicle is a rechargeable electric vehicle. Other examples of rechargeable electric vehicles are ones that store electricity in ultracapacitors, or in a flywheel.

Relation with hybrid vehicles Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles , and are not considered pure BEVs (also called all-electric vehicle) because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. If batteries cannot be charged externally are called regular hybrids.

History advertisement

and an electric car in 1913 (courtesy of the National Museum of American History)

in electric car La Jamais Contente, 1899

BEVs were among some of the earliest automobiles — electric vehicles predate gasoline and diesel. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Scotland businessman Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage. Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands, designed the small-scale electric car, built by his assistant Christopher Becker in 1835.

The improvement of the storage battery, by Frenchmen Gaston Plante in 1865 and Camille Faure in 1881, paved the way for electric vehicles to flourish. France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.Bellis, M. (2006) "The History of Electric Vehicles: The Early Years" About.com article at inventors.about.com accessed on 6 July 2006 In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.{{cite book| author=Wakefield, Ernest H. | title=History of the Electric Automobile | publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. | year=1994 | id=ISBN 1-56091-299-5 | page=2-3 -->

Just prior to 1900, before the pre-eminence of powerful but polluting internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (60 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph).

BEVs, produced in the USA by Anthony Electric, Baker Motor Vehicle, Detroit Electric, Edison, Studebaker, and others during the early 20th Century for a time out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 km/h (20 mph). These vehicles were successfully sold as town cars to upper-class customers and were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their clean, quiet and easy operation. Electrics did not require hand-cranking to start.

The introduction of the electric starter by Cadillac (automobile) in 1913 simplified the task of starting the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes dangerous. This innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle, as did the mass-produced and relatively inexpensive Ford Model T, which had been produced for four years, since 1908.McMahon, D. (2006) "Some EV History" Econogics, Inc. essay at econogics.com accessed on 5 July 2006 Internal-combustion vehicles advanced technologically, ultimately becoming more practical than — and out-performing — their electric-powered competitors.

Another blow to BEVs in the USA was the loss of Thomas Edison direct current (DC) electric power transmission system in the War of Currents. This deprived BEV users of a convenient source of DC electricity to recharge their batteries. As the technology of rectifiers was still in its infancy, changing alternating current to DC required a costly rotary converter.

Battery electric vehicles became popular for some limited range applications. Forklifts were BEVs when they were introduced in 1923 by Yale and some battery electric fork lifts are still produced. BEV golf carts have been available for many years, including early models by Lektra in 1954. Their popularity led to their use as neighborhood electric vehicles and expanded versions became available which were partially "street legal".

By the late 1930s, the electric automobile industry had completely disappeared, with battery-electric traction being limited to niche applications, such as certain industrial vehicles.

The 1947 invention of the point-contact transistor marked the beginning of a new era for BEV technology. Within a decade, Henney Coachworks had joined forces with National Union Electric Company, the makers of Exide batteries, to produce the first modern electric car based on transistor technology, the Henney Kilowatt, produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations. The 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the improved practicality of the Henney Kilowatt over previous electric cars, it was too expensive, and production was terminated in 1961. Even though the Henney Kilowatt never reached mass production volume, their transistor-based electric technology paved the way for modern EVs.



After California indicated that it would kill its Zero-emissions vehicle Mandate, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EV for sale to the general public during six months (ending on Nov. 22, 2002). All the rest were only leased, and with minor exceptions those models were withdrawn from the market and destroyed by manufacturers (other than Toyota). Toyota not only supports the 328 Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public, still all running at this date, but also supports hundreds in fleet usage. From time to time, Toyota RAV4-EV come up for sale on the used market, at prices that have ranged up to the mid 60 thousands of dollars. These are highly prized by solar homeowners who wish to charge their cars from their solar electric rooftop systems.

As of July, 2006, there are between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered vehicles in use in the US, up from about 56,000 in 2004 according to Electric Drive Transportation Association estimates.Saranow, J. (July 27, 2006) "The Electric Car Gets Some Muscle" The Wall Street Journal, pp. D1-2.

Regulation in California Since the late 1980s, electric vehicles have been promoted in the US through the use of tax credits. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) passenger automobiles, because they produce no emissions while being driven. The CARB had set a minimum quota for the use of ZEVs, but it was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that it was economically infeasible due to an alleged "lack of consumer demand".

The California program was designed by the California Air Resources Board to reduce air pollution and not specifically to promote electric vehicles. Under pressure from various manufactures, CARB replaced the zero emissions requirement with a combined requirement of a very small number of ZEVs to promote research and development, and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), an administrative designation for a super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emit about ten percent of the pollution of ordinary low emissions vehicles and are also certified for zero evaporative emissions. While effective in reaching the air polution goals projected for the zero emissions requirement the market effect was to permit the major manufactures to quickly terminate their public BEV programs.

Selected production vehicles :and List of production battery electric vehicles

Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order): Full Size Electric Vehicles

{|class="sortable"!Name!Comments!Production years!Number produced!Top Speed (mph or km/h)!Cost!Range (mi or km)|-

!Baker Motor Vehicle|The first electric car and it was reputedly easy to drive|1899-1915|?|14 mph or 22.5 km/h|US $2300 (1,727 €)]|Sold mainly to women and physicians.|1907-39|US $3,000 or 2,253 € depending on options|80 miles (130 km)|-

![Henney Kilowatt-based) electric car and outfitted with modern hydraulic brakes.|1958–60|

Use in the United States The following chart and table are based on Department of Energy tables on Alternative Fueled Vehicles, 1992-2000. Figures for electric vehicles include Low-Speed Vehicles (LSVs), which are "four-wheeled motor vehicles whose top speed is between 20 and 25 miles per hour to 40 kilometers per hour...to be used in residential areas, planned communities, industrial sites, and other areas with low density traffic, and low-speed zones."Hendrickson, Gail, and Kelly Ross. May 2005. http://www.ase.org/themes/main/images/lib/transportation/Alliance_Transportation_Handbook.pdfThe Drive to Efficient Transportation, Alliance to Save Energy, p. 36. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. LSVs, more commonly known as neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), were defined in 1998 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 500, which required safety features such as windshields and seat belts, but not doors or side walls.1999. "Low-Speed Vehicles," The Senate, State of Hawaii, p. 3. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. "Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity: Neighborhood Electric Vehicles." (Website). U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.

{|class="wikitable"!colspan=2|Battery Electric Vehicles
in the United States|-!Year!!Number|-|1992||1,607|-|1993||1,690|-|1994||2,224|-|1995||2,860|-|1996||3,280|-|1997||4,453|-|1998||5,243|-|1999||6,964|-|2000||11,830|-|2001||17,847|-|2002||33,047|-|2003||45,656|-|2004||55,852|-|Average growth ||39.1%|-|}

Comparison to internal combustion vehicles an older model electric vehicle on a drag race with a Dodge Viper left behind

BEVs have become much less common than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of BEVs in comparison to Internal combustion engines.

Cost While it is a dream of gasoline powered vehicles to reach 75 or 100 mpg (3L/100 km), electric vehicles naturally reach the equivalent of 200 mpg (1.5 L/100km) with their typical cost of two to four cents per mile. In contrast, gasoline-powered ICEVs currently cost about four to six times as much.Idaho National Laboratory (2005) "Comparing Energy Costs per Mile for Electric and Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles" Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity report at avt.inel.gov accessed 11 July 2006. The total cost of ownership for modern BEVs depends primarily on the #Batteries, http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?Action=UserDisplayFullDocument&orgId=101846&topicId=103840033&docId=l:618716736 the type and capacity of which determine several factors such as travel range, top speed, battery lifetime and recharging time; several trade-offs exist.

Batteries are usually the most expensive component of BEVs, though the price per kWh of charge has fallen rapidly in recent years, and batteries from old or wrecked electric cars can be bought for battery-to-grid mini-power plants. The cost of battery manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their cost when BEVs are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles. Since the late 1990s, advances in battery technologies have been driven by skyrocketing demand for laptop computers and mobile phones, with consumer demand for more features, larger, brighter displays, and longer battery time driving research and development in the field. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances.

Some batteries can be leasing or renting instead of bought (see Think Nordic).

One article indicates that 10 kWh of battery power provides a range of about 20 miles in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with estimates elsewhere of about 5 miles per KWH.http://www.werbos.com/E/WhoKilledElecPJW.htm The Chevy Volt is expected to use 50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at 33% thermodynamic efficiency (a theoretical maximum) that would mean 12 KWHs for 50 miles, or about 240 watt hours per mile. Teslamotors specified 215 WH/mile. For prices of a kWh of charge with various different battery technologies, see the "Energy/Consumer Price" column in the "Rechargeable battery#Comparison of battery types" section in the rechargeable battery article.

Ownership costs

Initial costs for a Battery Electric vehicle can be higher, but overall cost of ownership is lower, simply because electricity costs less to create than gasoline. Yes, it may be true that the initial cost can be over 30,000US, but most electric vehicles then run on electricity, for only a fraction of a cent per mile, whereas most gasoline cars are over 10 cents per mile. Thus, inital cost is higher, but overall cost is lower.

In the UK other changes in ownership costs include vehicle excise duty or road tax. Electric vehicles are now exempt and so BEV owners will save around £100 per year compared with an average conventional car. There remains some uncertainty about annual depreciation rates and resale values for BEVs due to the unknown length of battery-life and the low demand for battery electrics compared to other green car types. As BEVs lose their value faster than conventional cars depreciation rates are likely to be higher than for a conventional car at this time.

In the UK, BEV users who install additional recharging equipment will face additional financial penalties. Costs per standard charge point are around £500-£2000, depending on the difficulty of installation. Fully installed fast-chargers will cost between £10,000 and £30,000 per point although this depends on whether an on-board or off-board fast-charging system is used.

Running costs

Some running costs are significantly less for BEVs than for conventional cars. In particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity - fuel duty is zero-rated - and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves. Taking into account the high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs can be as low as 1.0-2.5p per mile (depending on the tariff). For a typical annual mileage of around 10,000 miles per year, switching from a conventional car to a battery electric could save you around £800 in fuel costs. However if the battery hire is considered a running cost, then the saving on fuel is cancelled out by the monthly battery leasing cost. In the New York City metropolitan area, the cost to run a battery (non-hybrid) electric car using standard deep cycle lead acid marine type batteries and is charged from the mains, costs about 3 times more to run than a conventional gasoline car.

BEV operating costs can be directly compared to the equivalent operating costs of a gasoline-powered vehicle. A gallon of gasoline contains about 36.4 kWh of energy. To calculate the cost of the electrical equivalent of a gallon of gasoline, multiply the utility cost per kWh by 36.4. To calculate the equivalent mileage of a BEV, divide 36.4 kWh/gal by the energy efficiency in kWh/mile, to get the equivalent miles per gallon. For example, if a BEV owner's electricity rate is $0.10 per kWh, and the BEV gets 0.20 kWh/mile, then the owner is paying the equivalent of $3.64 per gallon of gasoline, and getting the equivalent of 182 miles per gallon.

Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions Production and Electric vehicle conversion BEVs typically use 0.17 to 0.37 kilowatt-hours per mile (0.1–0.23 kWh/km).Idaho National Laboratory (2006) "Full Size Electric Vehicles" Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity reports at avt.inel.gov accessed 5 July 2006Idaho National Laboratory (2006) "1999 General Motors EV1 with NiMH: Performance Statistics" Electric Transportation Applications info sheets at inel.gov accessed 5 July 2006 Nearly half of this power consumption is due to Energy efficiency in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the well to wheels power consumption of their li-ion powered vehicle is 0.215 kwh per mile. The US fleet average of 23 miles per gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 1.58 kWh per mile and the 70 MPG Honda Insight uses 0.52 kWh per mile (assuming 36.4 kWh per US gallon of gasoline), so hybrid electric vehicles are relatively energy efficiency, and battery electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. A 2001 DOE estimate calculates a battery powered EV at 7 cents/kWh can be driven 43 miles for a dollar and at $1.25/gallon a gasoline vehicle will go 18 miles.

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Generating electricity and providing liquid fuels for vehicles are different categories of the energy economy, with different inefficiencies and environmental harms. A 55 % to 99.9 % improvement in CO2 emissions takes place when driving an EV over an ICE (gasoline, diesel) vehicle depending on the source of electricity. Comparing CO2 emissions can be done by using the US national average of 1.28 lbs CO2/kWh for electricity generation, giving a range for BEVs from zero up to 0.2 to 0.5 lbs CO2/mi (0.06 kg/km to 0.13 kg/km). Because 1 gal of gasoline produces 19 lbs CO2 when burned in a typical automobile engine, the average US fleet produces 0.83 lbs/mi (0.23 kg/km), a 40 mpg car produces approximately 0.47 lbs/mi and the Insight 0.27 lbs/mi (0.08 kg/km).US Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency (Model year 2007) database "Search for cars that don't need gasoline" Fuel Economy Guide accessed 5 July 2006 CO2 and other greenhouse gases emissions are minimal for BEVs powered from sustainable electricity sources (e.g. solar power), but are constant per gallon (or litre) for gasoline vehicles.

{|class="wikitable"!Model!!Short tons CO2
(conventional,
mostly fossil fuel
electricity production)!!Short tons CO2
(renewable electricity
production,
e.g., solar power,
or wind power)]s|-|2001 Honda Insight||3.1||3.1|-|2005 Toyota Prius||3.5||3.5|-|2005 Ford Escape H 2x||5.8||5.8|-|2005 Ford Escape H 4x||6.2||6.2|-!colspan=3|Internal combustion engine vehicles|-|2005 Dodge Neon 2.0L||6.0||6.0|-|2005 Ford Escape 4x||8.0||8.0|-|2005 GMC Envoy XUV 4x||11.7||11.7|}

Drag (physics) has a large impact on energy efficiency as the speed of the vehicle increases. See Drag coefficient#Typical values and examples for a list of cars.

Maintenance EVs, particularly those using AC or Brushless DC motor motors, have far fewer mechanical parts to wear out. An ICE vehicle on the other hand will have pistons, valves, camshafts, cambelts, gearbox and a clutch, all of which can wear out.

Both hybrids and EVs can use regenerative braking, which greatly reduces wear and tear on friction brakes - Prius taxi drivers report far less frequent brake maintenance.

Acceleration performance - a limited production electric car capable of reaching 0-100 km/h in 4.5 secondsAlthough some electric vehicles have very small motors, 20 hp or less and therefore have modest acceleration, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor even at very low speeds tends to increase the acceleration performance of an electric vehicle for the same rated horsepower. Another early solution was American Motors’ experimental Amitron piggyback system of batteries with one type designed for sustained speeds while a different set boosted acceleration when needed.

Electric vehicles can also utilize a direct motor-to-wheel configuration which increases the amount of available Power (physics). Having multiple motors connected directly to the wheels allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction. In some cases, the motor can be housed directly in the wheel, such as in the Whispering Wheel design, which lowers the vehicle's center of gravity and reduces the number of moving parts. When not fitted with an axle, Differential (mechanics), or Transmission (mechanics), electric vehicles have less drivetrain rotational inertia.

A gearless or single gear design in some BEVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. As there is no delay in developing torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction with acceleration.

For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively modest 300 horsepower, and a top speed of around 100 miles per hour. Some Electric motor#DC motors-equipped drag racer BEVs, have simple two-speed transmissions to improve top speed.Hedlund, R. (2006) "The 100 Mile Per Hour Club" National Electric Drag Racing Association list at nedra.comaccessed 5 July 2006Hedlund, R. (2006) "The 125 Mile Per Hour Club" National Electric Drag Racing Association list at nedra.com accessed 5 July 2006 The Tesla Roadster prototype can reach 60 mph in 4 seconds with a motor rated at 248 hp.

Batteries . Newer Li-ion cells can provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

Rechargeable battery used in electric vehicles include Lead-acid battery ("flooded" and VRLA), Nickel-cadmium battery, Nickel metal hydride battery, Lithium ion battery, Lithium ion polymer battery, and, less commonly, Zinc-air battery and Molten salt battery batteries. The amount of electricity stored in batteries is measured in kWh.

Charging Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged (see also Replacing, below).BEVs most commonly charge from the power grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated from a variety of domestic resources; such as Fossil fuel power plant, hydroelectricity, Nuclear power and others. Home power such as roof top photovoltaic solar cell panels, Micro hydro or Wind power may also be used and are promoted because of concerns regarding global warming.

Charging time is limited primarily by the capacity of the grid connection. A normal household outlet is between 1.5 kilowatts (in the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with 110 Volt supply) to 3 kilowatts (in countries with 240 V supply). The main connection to a house might be able to sustain 10 kilowatts, and special wiring can be installed to use this. At this higher power level charging even a small, 7 kilowatt-hour (14–28 mi) pack, would probably require one hour. This is small compared to the effective power delivery rate of an average petrol pump, about 5,000 kilowatts. Even if the supply power can be increased, most batteries do not accept charge at greater than their charge rate ("1C"), because high charge rate has adverse effect on the discharge capacities of batteries. http://batteryuniversity.com/partone-5A.htm

In 1995, some charging stations charged BEVs in one hour. In November 1997, Ford purchased a fast-charge system produced by AeroVironment called "PosiCharge" for testing its fleets of Ford Ranger EV, which charged their lead-acid batteries in between six and fifteen minutes. In February 1998, General Motors announced a version of its "Magne Charge" system which could recharge Nickel metal hydride battery batteries in about ten minutes, providing a range of sixty to one hundred miles.Anderson, C.D. and Anderson, J. (2005) "New Charging Systems" Electric and Hybrid Cars: a History (North Carolina: McFarland & Co., Inc.) ISBN 0-7864-1872-9, p. 121.

In 2005, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to accept an 80% charge in as little as 60 seconds.Toshiba Corporation (2005) "Toshiba's New Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Battery Recharges in Only One Minute" press release at toshiba.co.jp accessed 5 July 2006 Scaling this specific power characteristic up to the same 7 kilowatt-hour EV pack would result in the need for a peak of 336 kilowatts of power from some source for those 60 seconds. It is not clear that such batteries will work directly in BEVs as heat build-up may make them unsafe.

In 2007, Altairnano's NanoSafe batteries are rechargeable in a few minutes, versus hours required for other rechargeable batteries. A NanoSafe cell can be charged to over 80% charge capacity in about one minute.

Most people do not always require fast recharging because they have enough time, six to eight hours, during the work day or overnight to recharge. As the charging does not require attention it takes a few seconds for an owner to plug in and unplug their vehicle. Many BEV drivers prefer refueling at home, avoiding the inconvenience of visiting a fuel station. Some workplaces provide special parking bays for electric vehicles with charging equipment provided. In colder areas such as Minnesota and Canada there exists some infrastructure for public power outlets, in parking garages and at parking meters, provided primarily for engine pre-heating.

Connectors The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways (electric coupling). The first is a direct electrical connection known as conductive coupling. This might be as simple as a mains lead into a weatherproof socket through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user from high voltages. The second approach is known as inductive coupling. A special 'paddle' is inserted into a slot on the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other is built into the car. When the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack.

The major advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of electric shock as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special connectors and Residual-current device can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard. "Car Companies' Head-on Competition In Electric Vehicle Charging." (Website). The Auto Channel, 1998-11-24. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. Conductive coupling equipment is lower in cost and much more efficient due to a vastly lower component count. An inductive charging proponent from Toyota contended in 1998 that overall cost differences were minimal, while a conductive charging proponent from Ford contended that conductive charging was more cost efficient.

Travel range before recharging and trailers had a range of 75 to 150 miles with NiMH batteries in 1999.

The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used, and the performance demands of the driver. The weight and type of vehicle also have an impact just as they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversions depends on the battery type:







Finding the economic balance of range versus performance, battery capacity versus weight, and battery type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer.

With an AC system regenerative braking can extend range by up to 50% under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending upon terrain.

BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to extended their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use. Discharged baset trailers can be replaced by recharged ones in a route point. If rented then maintenance costs can be deferred to the agency.

Such BEVs can become Hybrid vehicles depending on the trailer and car types of energy and powertrain.

Replacing An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range extender modules) with fully charged batteries.

Re-filling Zinc-bromine flow battery can be re-filled, instead of recharged, saving time. V2G: uploading and grid buffering Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid in anytime, specially:





Lifespan Individual batteries are usually arranged into large battery packs of various voltage and ampere-hour capacity products to give the required energy capacity. Battery life should be considered when calculating the extended cost of ownership, as all batteries eventually wear out and must be replaced. The rate at which they expire depends on a number of factors.

The depth of discharge (DOD) is the recommended proportion of the total available energy storage for which that battery will achieve its rated cycles. Deep cycle lead-acid batteries generally should not be discharged below 80% capacity. More modern formulations can survive deeper cycles.

In real world use, some fleet Toyota RAV4 EVs, using NiMH batteries, have exceeded 100,000 miles (160,000 km) with little degradation in their daily range.Knipe, TJ et al. (2003) "100,000-Mile Evaluation of the Toyota RAV4 EV" Southern California Edison, Electric Vehicle Technical Center report at evchargernews.com accessed on 5 July 2006 Quoting that report's concluding assessment:

"The five-vehicle test is demonstrating the long-term durability of Nickel Metal Hydride batteries and electric drive trains. Only slight performance degradation has been observed to-date on four out of five vehicles.... EVTC test data provide strong evidence that all five vehicles will exceed the 100,000-mile mark. SCE’s positive experience points to the very strong likelihood of a 130,000 to 150,000-mile Nickel Metal Hydride battery and drive-train operational life. EVs can therefore match or exceed the lifecycle miles of comparable internal combustion engine vehicles.

"In June 2003 the 320 RAV4 EVs of the SCE fleet were used primarily by meter readers, service managers, field representatives, service planners and mail handlers, and for security patrols and carpools. In five years of operation, the RAV4 EV fleet had logged more than 6.9 million miles, eliminating about 830 tons of air pollutants, and preventing more than 3,700 tons of tailpipe carbon dioxide emissions. Given the successful operation of its EVs to-date, SCE plans to continue using them well after they all log 100,000-miles."

Jay Leno's 1909 Baker Electric (see Baker Motor Vehicle) still operates on its original Edison cells. Battery replacement costs of BEVs may be partially or fully offset by the lack of regular maintenance such as oil and filter (chemistry) changes required for ICEVs, and by the greater reliability of BEVs due to their fewer moving parts. They also do away with many other parts that normally require servicing and maintenance in a regular car, such as on the gearbox, cooling system, and engine tuning. And by the time batteries do finally need definitive replacement, they can be replaced with later generation ones which may offer better performance characteristics, in the same way as you might replace old batteries from a digital camera with improved ones.

Safety The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues: Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, there is apparently no available information regarding whether they are inherently more or less dangerous than gasoline or diesel internal combustion vehicles which carry flammable fuels.

Future The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the cost and availability of Rechargeable battery with high energy densities, power density, and long life, as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost-competitive with internal combustion engine components. Li-ion, Lithium ion polymer battery and Zinc-air battery have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

Bolloré a French automative parts group developed a concept car the "Bluecar" using Lithium metal polymer batteries developed by a subsidiary Batscap. It had a range of 250 km and top speed of 125 km/h. (Bluecar) document

The cathodes of early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is pricey, and can release oxygen if its cell is overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. The price premium for early 2007 hybrids is about US $5000, some $3000 of which is for their NiMH battery packs. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, that would break even after six to ten years of operation. The hybrid premium could fall to $2000 in five years, with $1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion batteries, providing a three-year payback.Voelcker, J. (January 2007) "Lithium Batteries for Hybrid Cars" IEEE Spectrum

Hobbyists, conversions, and racing ] video at eliica.com) However, current models cost approximately $300,000 US, about half of which is the cost of the batteries.

prototype

Controversy crushed by General Motors shortly after their leases expired

Most of the EVs produced in response to the CARB ZEV initiative by the three major US automobile manufacturers, General Motors Corporation, Chrysler Corporation and Ford Motor Company, as well as Honda, Nissan and Toyota were recalled and destroyed when the initiative was withdrawn. Notable exceptions are many of the Toyota RAV4 EVs and the Ford Th!nk. Moreover, the three major American motor companies almost exclusively promoted their electric cars in the American market, where gas has been comparatively cheap, and virtually ignored the European market, where gas is significantly more expensive. The apparent lack of good faith attempts to meet the ZEV initiative are addressed in a film on the subject, directed by former EV1 owner and activist Chris Paine, entitled Who Killed the Electric Car? which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2006, and was released July 2006.

Proponents' arguments Supporters point out the following:

Opponents' arguments Skeptics of the viability of BEVs argue on conventional practicality grounds and in more general terms. Practicality grounds include:

 

Battery Electric Vehicle



 
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